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Rethinking maritime cabotage improved connectivity AT TRANSPORT AND TRADE FACILITATION Series 9 RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 2 © 2017, United Nations work open access complying Creative Commons licence created intergovernmental organizations, http://creativecommons.org/licenses//3.0/igo/. findings, interpretations conclusions expressed authors necessarily reflect views United Nations officials Member States. designation employed presentation material map work imply expression opinion whatsoever part United Nations legal status country, territory, city area authorities, delimitation frontiers boundaries. Photocopies reproductions excerpts allowed proper credits. publication formally edited. United Nations publication issued United Nations Conference Trade Development. UNCTAD/DTL/TLB/2017/1 RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 3 Acknowledgements study prepared Luisa Rodriguez, leadership Jan Hoffmann, Head Trade Logistics Branch (TLB) Frida Youssef, Chief Transport Section/TLB. Extensive insightful comments received Pierre Latrille (World Trade Organization) valuable contributions Hassiba Benamara Mathis Weller (Transport Section/TLB). RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 4 Table Contents Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 3 Executive summary ......................................................................................................................... 6 Acronyms ........................................................................................................................................ 8 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 9 1. Maritime cabotage perspective........................................................................................... 9 2. Maritime cabotage regimes .................................................................................................. 11 2.1. Trade agreement‐based regimes ................................................................................................ 11 2.2. Applied regimes .......................................................................................................................... 13 3. Cabotage regimes: rationale impact .............................................................................. 16 3.1. Rationale ..................................................................................................................................... 17 3.2. Impact: selected examples.......................................................................................................... 17 4. Cabotage restrictions liner shipping connectivity .......................................................... 23 4.1. Zooming impact maritime cabotage restrictions transport costs liner shipping connectivity .......................................................................................................................... 23 4.2. Key issues current context ................................................................................................ 26 4.3. contribution relaxing cabotage regimes improved connectivity current context 29 4.4. Required reforms areas improved connectivity ...................................................... 31 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 33 Annex: Container ship deployment domestic services, 2017 ......................................... 35 References .................................................................................................................................... 40 List figures Figure 1: World Container Traffic, port handling (empty full containers) transhipment ............. 27 Figure 2: World container traffic, percentage share transhipment port handling total .................... 27 Figure 3: Liner Shipping Connectivity Index, 2004–2017 (Argentina, Brazil Uruguay) ........................ 30 Figure 4: Liner Shipping Connectivity Index, 2004–2017 (Sri Lanka, India Pakistan) .......................... 30 RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 5 List tables Table 1: Maritime cabotage services references WTO lists specific commitments ........................... 12 Table 2: MFN exemptions related maritime cabotage: categories examples ................................. 12 Table 3: Examples cabotage reservations applied regimes ................................................................ 13 Table 4: Countries fully partially excluding foreign‐flag ships cabotage imposing conditions /register vessels national flags provide cabotage services ............................................... 16 Table 5: Eligibility criteria foreign ships provide cabotage services Zealand, Marine Transport Act 1994 .............................................................................................................. 21 List boxes Box 1: Cabotage regulation enhance supply‐side capacity employment opportunities Nigeria’ shipping sector ............................................................................................................................. 18 Box 2: Jones Act complicates logistics adds costs ................................................................. 24 Box 3. Impact cabotage regimes connectivity: assessment EU perspective .. 25 Box 4: impact direct maritime connections costs transport export performance developing countries................................................................................................................................... 28 RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 6 Executive summary paper discusses maritime cabotage current context international maritime connectivity. purpose assist policy‐makers identifying analysing options improved connectivity. Maritime cabotage refers sea transport ports country. involves operations services serving domestic, intra‐regional international markets. Service patterns vary depending cabotage part hubs‐‐spoke network regional short sea service. Maritime cabotage markets represent considerable business trade potential, countries longer coast lines archipelagic countries. perspective supply chain efficiency, maritime cabotage interest improve door‐‐door services enhance efficiency logistic supply chain, promote carriage larger cargo volumes costs guarantee service continuity. Maritime cabotage services generally excluded trade liberalization commitments. addition, cabotage restrictions remain place applied regimes countries form conditions met foreign vessels order provide maritime transport services ports country. Relevant restrictions include, limitations, requirements relating () ownership flagging (related, , foreign equity limits, nationality/residence requirements crews managers) (ii) registration. restrictive nature maritime cabotage regimes indicative sensitive nature sector. Originally motivated security concerns, maritime cabotage restrictions today related building national capacity shipping derive revenues employment benefits. present research suggests developing countries succeeded building supply‐side capacity implementing policies addition cabotage regimes. , number developing countries faced challenges leveraging cabotage restrictions order build supply‐side capacity. , cabotage regimes developing countries strictly applied waivers common practice. experience developed countries, relaxed respective cabotage regimes 1990s, suggests ( cases) opening domestic shipping industry international competition entailed challenges terms domestic trade‐ offs constituencies, lead improved efficiency reduced freight rates. Maritime transport connectivity nature maritime connections, including aspects number regular maritime services, frequency reliability. Maritime transport connectivity important determinant trade costs. Developing countries, SIDS LDCs, face higher transport costs, access , frequent, reliable costly transport connections. Improved liner shipping connectivity reduce trade costs direct, positive bearing trade volumes. context, important impact cabotage restrictions terms RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 7 connectivity relates restrained competition, leads increased costs efficient transport operations. environment witnessing deployment ‐larger ships, cascading vessels main trade routes secondary routes growing concentration liner shipping lead deterioration maritime connectivity developing countries. context, relaxing cabotage restrictions , cases products, present possibilities perspective influencing shippers' distribution strategies, positively impact service quality shipping lines, port operators allied industries. Relaxing cabotage restrictions improve maritime connectivity linking national, regional intercontinental liner shipping services. , current environment, transhipment feedering remain key elements liner shipping operations perspective collecting cargo spokes ports transferring hub ports vital part filling large ships. years, developing countries relaxed cabotage regimes part broader strategies increase competitiveness, improve connectivity adapt context emerging trends. important highlight , relaxing cabotage regulation contribute improve country' liner shipping connectivity, achieving objective function policy reform parameters related infrastructure hinterland development. include: investing port facilities upgrades; improving efficiency seaport operations; encouraging port competition, including neighbouring countries' ports developing connections ports hinterlands efficient inland transport networks. RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 8 Acronyms CO2 Carbon dioxide EEA European Economic Area EFTA European Free Trade Association EU European Union ‐TIP (WTO World Bank) Integrated Trade Intelligence Portal LDCs Developed Countries LLDCs Landlocked Developing Countries MFN Favoured Nation (principle) MOC Ministry Commerce, People' Republic China NZ$ Zealand dollar OECD Organisation Economic ‐operation Development RTA Regional Trade Agreement SIDS Small Islands Developing States STRI (OECD) Services Trade Restrictiveness Index TEU Twenty‐foot Equivalent Unit UNCTAD United Nations Conference Trade Development US United States USD United States dollar WCO World Customs Organization WTO World Trade Organization RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 9 Introduction Connectivity possibilities people, companies countries connect . trade sphere, physical connectivity enables delivery goods services local, regional global markets. Maritime transport connectivity determines extent countries, markets, suppliers, buyers, importers, exporters, producers consumers serviced numerous, , regular, frequent reliable maritime transport services. maritime transport sector, liner shipping connectivity relating containerised trade relevance. Maritime transport connectivity important determinant trade costs. Improved liner shipping connectivity contributes significantly reducing trade costs promoting growth trade volumes. developing countries faced transport logistical challenges undermine level transport connectivity ability connect global markets. , smaller vulnerable economies, Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs) Small Island Developing States (SIDS), face considerable challenges benefiting trade opportunities, access , frequent, unreliable, costly maritime transport connections. context, improving understanding key factors enhance maritime liner shipping connectivity critical. key factor increasingly arising potentially important maritime connectivity impact maritime cabotage restrictions. creating hurdles bottlenecks undermining smooth delivery maritime transport services increase operational costs, maritime cabotage restrictions deterrent improved liner shipping connectivity. background, present study analyses discusses considerations relating maritime cabotage ways influence liner shipping connectivity developing countries, assist policy‐makers identifying analysing relevant options leverage maritime cabotage support enhanced liner connectivity levels. report structured : Section 1 introduces concept maritime cabotage considers elements maritime cabotage operations; Section 2 sets overview existing cabotage regimes; Section 3 discusses rationale maritime cabotage restrictions impacts cabotage regimes, Section 4 analyses specific impact cabotage connectivity possibilities linking existing domestic liner shipping connections overseas services, based time tables world’ container shipping fleet 2017. Finally, main findings recommendations study presented section. 1. Maritime cabotage perspective Maritime cabotage generally defined sea transport (passengers ) goods ports located country. , countries define maritime cabotage manners. Examining regulations country experiences, Frost Brooks (2017 2015) identified characteristics attributable cabotage operations: RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 10 Geographical proximity ( country region), means cabotage transport necessarily entail crossing ocean; nature cargo carried vessels coastal waters systems encompass containerized (multimodal) cargo, bulk, trailerized cargo empty containers; possibility intermodal choice shipper moving units water land‐based alternatives ( rail road) cases, cabotage takes place chartered vessels, providing operators flexibility adapt market conditions seasonality. purposes paper, maritime cabotage includes: () domestic shipping operations (domestic trade), (ii) operations related transhipment1 (including feeder services2 containerized cargo moves ports country, part international shipping journey, called international relay3) (iii) moving repositioning empty containers. Maritime cabotage means providing services, domestic intra‐regional maritime transport services transhipment. Providing services requires types vessels (including small container vessels, ferries ‐ ro‐ro operators ro‐pax‐ barges), serve feeder vessels, tugs. Feeder vessels tend operate transhipment hub service pattern built mother ships regional services tend operate ‐‐ basis, service pattern derived customers. Cabotage markets represent considerable business trade potential shippers. data Annex 1 shows fleet deployment liner shipping companies services country’ seaports, providing indication potential containerized maritime cabotage transport domestic trade. Domestic vessel deployment represent high shares total vessel deployment countries longer coast lines, case Algeria, Australia, Brazil, China, Chile, India, Italy, Mexico, South Africa, Turkey United States. potential high countries islands, alternative trucking rail transport costlier . case British Virgin Islands, Comoros, Cook Islands, Fiji, Indonesia, Japan, Micronesia, Papua Guinea Philippines. role maritime cabotage potential enabler business trade growth, type traffic transport entails sustainability ‐benefits efforts aiming promoting sustainable transport. , moving energy carbon intensive modes transport, road transport, maritime carriage domestic trade lead negative externalities society, including road congestion CO2 emissions. 1 Defined shipment goods containers intermediate destination, reaching final destination 2 Feedering transhipment mainline carrier feeder vessel, vice versa, short haul distribution ports small lack sufficient volumes served mainline carrier. considered extension deep sea operation 3 Defined movement ocean freight containers ocean vessels owned operated carrier shipping company RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 11 perspective supply chain efficiency, maritime cabotage interest improve door‐ ‐door services enhance efficiency logistic supply chain, promote carriage larger cargo volumes costs guarantee service continuity. , shifting part road transport leg maritime transport lead reduction cost freight long distance. shift lead () greater product safety reducing risk cargo theft, (ii) reduce additional security costs (Amaya al 2009 Yon 2008). , impact maritime cabotage logistics supply chain efficiency costs function specific characteristics product transported demand, distance, frequency service cargo volumes (Morales‐Fusco al., 2013). 2. Maritime cabotage regimes great potential domestic maritime traffic liner shipping connectivity, trade flows, business, transport costs, contributor sustainability agenda, important improve understanding main restrictions prevent realisation potential. , sections relevant maritime cabotage regimes, underlying restrictions policy objectives concerns give rise maritime cabotage restrictions. domestic maritime transport services regimes derived trade agreements considered , applied regimes. 2.1. Trade agreement‐based regimes schedules commitments trade agreements ( related World Trade Organization ‐WTO‐ Regional Trade agreements, RTAs) provide glimpse conditions foreign service providers access market country. WTO bindings act ceilings, forbidding countries introducing restrictive legislation conditions expressed schedules. countries generally tended cautious approach binding commitments WTO, bound commitments tend reflect restrictive scenario applied regimes. Differences bound commitments applied regimes ( called "water") reflect national stance interface domestic protection, trade openness policies economic development. 164 WTO members, 61 included commitments maritime transport services schedule commitments. 61 members, 32 registered regulation affecting maritime cabotage operations4. Limitations market access national treatment affect trade maritime transport services mode supply member' list specific commitments, 4 ‐TIP services database, retrieved : 16 September 2017 RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 12 list exemptions Favoured Nation principle5 (MFN exemptions) list horizontal commitments.6 review countries specific commitments maritime transport services GATS shows maritime cabotage generally excluded scope agreement open liberalization, wording: Table 1: Maritime cabotage services references WTO lists specific commitments "International maritime transport freight… … //excluding cabotage transport … excluding transportation coastal waters" "International rental vessels crew … cabotage" Source: Integrated Trade Intelligence Portal Services ‐‐TIP‐ (GATS database) members, .. Benin, Jamaica, Kyrgyz Republic, Latvia, Oman Papua Guinea foreign service providers engage maritime cabotage. inferred WTO schedules, restrictions maritime freight transport services (WTO, 2010). lists MFN exemptions provide picture instances foreign providers provide maritime cabotage services. 71 listed MFN exemptions maritime transport services, 15 refer cabotage coastal shipping. based reciprocity principle existing/future agreements ( Table 2). Table 2: MFN exemptions related maritime cabotage: categories examples Category Examples ( exempted MFN principle…): Reciprocal based (existing future) agreements Reciprocal existing future measures exempting vessels registered foreign flag country general prohibition operate cabotage transport (Finland, Sweden) Existing future laws, decrees decisions, based bilateral multilateral agreements grant cabotage liner trade rights trading partners (Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Congo, Cote 'Ivoire, Gabon, Mali, Niger, Senegal) Access domestic shipping reserved Philippine‐owned registered vessels. , limited access domestic shipping granted countries Philippines concluded agreements Amity, Commerce Navigation Preferential treatment ( granted) operators Andean ‐region freedom access maritime freight transportation ‐ 5 MFN exemptions constitute legal exception core principle multilateral trading system ( MFN treatment) countries grant trading partners equal trade‐related treatment. means special treatment ( customs duty rates) trading partner, treatment applicable WTO members. 6 information structure WTO services schedules limitations inscribed schedules : “WTO Guidelines scheduling specific commitments GATS”, : https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/sl92.doc “Guide reading GATS schedules specific commitments list MFN exemptions”, : https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/guide1_e.htm RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 13 Category Examples ( exempted MFN principle…): region, including coastal waters (Bolivia) Unilateral cases subject procedure established Government Russian Federation, cabotage transportation cabotage towing carried foreign vessels Source: ‐TIP Services (GATS database) schedules commitment reasons invoked justifying exemptions. included encouraging trade; promoting regional economic integration development merchant navy region; preserving regional specificity maritime cabotage transport; , regulating cabotage traffic based reciprocal agreements existing practice (WTO, 2010). RTAs, present analysis reveals 170 agreements included references maritime transport services. Latrille (2015) examined sample agreements maritime cabotage excluded 30 agreements, representing ‐ sample. concluded virtually commitments related maritime cabotage transport RTAs covering services, scheduled positive lists negative lists. case, commitments practically subject reservation. 2.2. Applied regimes examination applied regimes maritime cabotage shows sector generally reserved national‐flagged vessels national transporters. situations, foreign vessels provide cabotage services temporary cabotage license ( called waiver), company complies requirements. include company registration, nationality ( owner, managerial positions crew) local establishment company. Table 3 examples reservations, exceptions conditions attached. Table 3: Examples cabotage reservations applied regimes Scenario applied regime Scenario 1: Cabotage services reserved national flagged vessels… … foreign vessels circumstances … Subject conditions Cabotage reserved Argentine‐flagged vessels. restriction applies cargoes ultimately exported , voyage, vessel calls foreign ports. regulations cabotage apply transhipment, dredging towing operations service commercial activity carried Argentine (maritime, river lake) waters. Vessels providing cabotage services Argentina owned Argentine citizens companies legally established Argentina registered ship‐ owners National Ship‐owners Register National Executive authorize foreign vessels provide national cabotage services Argentine Units capable providing Cabotage reserved Brazilian‐flag vessels operated Brazilian shipping companies. Foreign vessels participate cabotage chartered Brazilian shipping company, authorization obtained. Authorizations waiving restriction granted : Brazilian‐flag vessel required type ; public interest reasons; foreign RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 14 Scenario applied regime vessel substitutes vessel construction Brazilian shipyard Registration requirements vessels limit foreign participation water transportation shipping sector, including cabotage tugging activities performed Chilean ports, minority stake holding Chilean controlled firms China reserves (cabotage operations related ) onward forwarding international cargo ‐international relay‐ 100% Chinese‐owned companies flying Chinese flag. , foreign shipping companies (engage cabotage operations related ) transport ‐owned leased empty containers coastal ports China. Shipping towing domestic ports (cabotage) undertaken ships flying national flag, stipulated laws administrative rules regulations. Regulation Vessel Registration stipulates , fly national flag, vessel registered China obtain Chinese nationality. crews Chinese citizens; recruit foreign crew, approval MOC required. addition, ship owned Chinese citizen, owner residence main business office China; ship owned legal person, main business office China; joint venture foreign investment, 50% company' registered capital owned Chinese partner. Cabotage navigation trade Uruguay reserved Uruguayan‐ registered vessels. Uruguayan‐registered vessels operate cabotage services Uruguay meet conditions: () owners natural persons, prove Uruguayan nationality domicile; () owner company, show shareholders Uruguayan citizens domiciled country, 51% registered voting shares owned Uruguayan citizens, company controlled managed Uruguayans date social tax obligations Examples waiver provisions similar cabotage authorizations: order operate coastal shipping service regular permanent basis, obtain route license Ministry Public Works Transport, case exceptional services. Concessions coastal shipping services granted Costa Rican citizens companies formed Costa Rica, capital controlled Costa Ricans holding 60 percent shares. concessions granted periods years. Bangladesh exempts foreign feeder operators obtain waiver certificates loading unloading cargo ports Bangladesh ( context ‐year general waiver) Scenario 2: Cabotage strictly reserved national transporters Coastal shipping limited national transporters (Cameroon) Ghana Shipping Act restricts maritime cabotage domestic companies. Cabotage open national carriers Shipping Administration Act 1954 (Myanmar) Source: ‐TIP Services (Applied Regimes database) worth noting conditions obtain national flag entail fees registration vessels complying restrictive conditions. ‐flagging order provide cabotage services interest foreign firms depending potential trade. case larger archipelagic countries, Indonesia Bahamas, interest RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 15 coastal trade substantial, shipping main access line markets rest world. review applied regimes highlighted conditions apply foreign services providers providing cabotage , faced domestic services providers. : Tonga, foreign shipping companies permitted offer cabotage services, engage Tongan shipping agent agent based Tonga; Dominican Republic, Dominican‐flagged vessels receive 50 cent discount fees port facilities demurrage services exempt berthing charges, Uruguay, government authority issues tender domestic cabotage competition foreign vessels, granted preference margin 10 cent freight. fact applied regimes countries ( Gambia, Dominica, Guatemala Belize) explicitly cabotage foreign service providers noteworthy. Regulation, case reservations requirements , act market entry determinant foreign providers maritime cabotage services. means , circumstances, nullify significantly impair market access, barrier trade. OECD Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (STRI) insights terms classifying broad categories restrictions affect cabotage. methodology7 dataset OECD, cabotage restrictions relate types measures affecting foreign entry: () foreign‐flagged ships fully excluded cabotage, exception, (ii) partially excluded cabotage. Table 4 features countries covered OECD analysis applicable scenario. common requirement cabotage register vessel national flag. Conditions flying national flag considered trade restriction se, cases flying flag linked access segments market, discrimination related registering national flag considered restriction foreign entry. shown Table 4, countries impose conditions register vessels national registry, limiting provision maritime cabotage. 7 OECD methodology encompasses composite STRI indices quantify categories restrictions, restrictions foreign entry; movement people; barriers competition; regulatory transparency discriminatory measures impact ease business. STRI composite indices derived quantifying qualitative information regulatory database binary scores. resulting sectoral indices values (complete openness trade investment) (total market closure foreign services providers). RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 16 Table 4: Countries fully partially excluding foreign‐flag ships cabotage imposing conditions /register vessels national flags provide cabotage services Countries foreign‐flagged ships … Countries imposing conditions / register vessels national flags provide cabotage services … fully excluded cabotage, exception … partially excluded cabotage Belgium Estonia Greece8 Italy Poland9 Sweden10 Turkey United States China Colombia Indonesia Lithuania Australia Canada Korea Chile Finland France Germany Greece Israel Japan Korea Latvia Mexico Zealand Poland Portugal Slovenia Spain Sweden United Kingdom Brazil Costa Rica India Russia South Africa Australia Belgium Canada Chile Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Iceland Ireland Israel Italy Japan Korea Mexico Netherlands Zealand Norway Poland Portugal Spain Turkey United Kingdom United States Brazil China Colombia Costa Rica India Indonesia Lithuania Russia South Africa Source: OECD Services Trade Restrictiveness Index Regulatory Database 3. Cabotage regimes: rationale impact , restrictions domestic coastal trade widespread. rationale measures impact performance domestic shipping sector liner shipping connectivity trade costs, addressed sections. 8 Greece appears fully excluding partially excluding cabotage. existing regulation foresees general rule maritime cabotage : () permitted ‐EU registered vessels (ii) EU registered ships enjoy freedom provide services. , time, ships flag countries participate Greek maritime cabotage number ships EU fleet cover routes. 9 Poland appears fully excluding partially excluding cabotage. existing regulation foresees general rule maritime cabotage permitted EU‐flagged ships. , time, circumstances, local Maritime authority, authorize ships flying flag State EU perform shipping Polish ports (cabotage), fixed period time. 10 Sweden appears fully excluding partially excluding cabotage. existing regulation foresees general rule maritime cabotage restricted Swedish‐ EEA‐flagged ships. , time, foreign vessels granted perform cabotage based bilateral agreements. RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 17 3.1. Rationale Existing restrictions reflect political sensitivity cabotage operations. Historically, cabotage restrictions justified preserve security, avoid shipping shortages case conflict, lack access foreign carriers leave military adequate means moving men materiel war zone. point view, cabotage restrictions aimed ensuring local shipping companies carry locally generated cargo protect local waterways ensure strategic deliveries shipments. Maintaining national merchant fleets important motivation cabotage restrictions. explanations . , argued maintaining national fleet contribute reduce adverse impact freight expenditures balance payments. , contribute ensure economic growth social ‐ developing local capacity segments maritime transport chain, ship‐building repair, ship ownership, registration, operation seafarers. Facilitating international trade predictable stable environment motivation restricting entry foreign service providers provide cabotage services. relevant locations rely shipping goods passengers remote islands. case, services offered insufficient shipping left hands unpredictable volatile free market. position domestic constituencies (supporting cabotage restrictions) national debates relaxation cabotage regimes suggests rationale cabotage regulations today labour interests protect local industries foreign competition. 11 context, flagging conditions (attached operating cabotage services) previous section important. flags lead requirements manning levels minimum wages, taxation levels related regimes. instance, concerns voiced relaxation cabotage regulation countries related fact increasing competition transport operators reduction operating costs changing employment practices, weakening labour safety standards seafarers12. 3.2. Impact: selected examples studies analysed impact cabotage regimes performance domestic shipping sector. Findings present research suggest , practice, cabotage regimes 11 : " Lifting cabotage policy spells doom shipping industry" http://www.theborneopost./2017/05/18/lifting‐‐cabotage‐policy‐spells‐doom‐‐shipping‐industry/; "Maritime industry Australian shipping sector disappear legislative taxation " http://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2016‐03‐14/maritime‐future‐‐feature‐‐election/7244018 12 : " high cost cheap shipping" https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/muanational/pages/4051/attachments/original/1480042542/Reduced_NoVale.pdf14 80042542 "Canadian Court Sides SIU Canada’ Claim Cabotage Attacked Issuance Foreign Worker Permits" https://maritimetrades.org/canadian‐court‐sides‐‐siu‐‐canadas‐claim‐‐cabotage‐‐attacked‐‐issuance‐ ‐foreign‐worker‐permits/ RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 18 strictly applied developing countries. section illustrates select examples countries succeeded developing supply‐side capacity, leveraging cabotage regimes faced challenges achieving . China, Brazil India succeeded developing shipping supply‐side capacity. , maritime cabotage regimes sole element explaining success expansion supply‐side capacity. , case China India, infrastructure investment projects, programs focused training incentives contributed objective. case Brazil ( countries Latin America), Wilmsmeier (2014) suggested cabotage restrictions induced evolution services structures leading global carriers "convert" regional shipping lines regional feeder operators ( overcome existing cabotage restrictions) increase supply‐side capacity time, reducing effective competition. impact competition highlighted study (World Bank, 2014) considered link cabotage restrictions Philippines oligopolistic shipping market structure led high shipping costs quality service. countries Nigeria South Africa encountered challenges leveraging cabotage restrictions order build supply‐side capacity. Weak supply capacity led, practice, widespread cabotage waivers overriding proper implementation cabotage regulations. illustrate point, Box 1 summarizes main findings studies relaying factors explain 10 years maritime cabotage regime implementation Nigeria led desired results. Box 1: Cabotage regulation enhance supply‐side capacity employment opportunities Nigeria’ shipping sector coastline 870 kilometres 3’000 kilometres inland waterways, coastal trade important Nigerian oil, gas fisheries industries. Coastal Inland Shipping (Cabotage) Act passed 2003 objective reserve commercial transportation goods services Nigerian coastal inland water, vessels registered Nigeria owned Nigerians. objectives included stimulating protecting national shipping companies, increasing national ship ownership promoting training Nigerians maritime transport technology seafarers. Act part broader package encompassing measures related investment attraction (including infrastructure), training, monitoring regulatory compliance registration procedures. wide consensus Act achieved objectives. implementation Act, shipping activities national ship‐owners declined. Foreign‐owned foreign‐crewed vessels dominate services commercial operations carriage goods passengers inland coastal waters Nigeria. addition, shortage trained sailors, making impossible comply provisions local employment. studies, Akodu, Bisi al. (2015); Bello‐Olowookere, Ganiyu (2011) Okeke, ... al. (2012), suggest situation derive incomplete implementation Government policies , turn, relates main reasons: , institutional weaknesses difficult bridge gap local capacity RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 19 opportunities Act. weaknesses affected implementation monitoring compliance Act. Implementation weaknesses translated, , lack disbursement funds aimed supporting ship‐owners, financing ship‐ building local training capacity building. compliance, Akodu notes conflict interest functions implementing agency .. collecting waiver levies enforcing cabotage regime, suggesting income (rents) generated waiver levies acted disincentive proper implementation. , provision waivers foreign‐owned vessels, grounds Nigerian fleet meeting required standards insufficient cater Nigerian cabotage shipping demand, oil sector. Sources: Akodu, Bisi al. (2015); Bello‐Olowookere, Ganiyu (2011) Okeke, ... al. (2012) South Africa, cabotage operations dominated foreign‐owned ships. exploring subject, Mabiletsa (2016) road freight transport prevails coastal shipping due lack sustainable cargo ships carry coastal routes South Africa South Africa regional partners. result, foreign‐owned shipping lines deploy feeder services, internal logistics arrangement limited services. Mabiletsa highlighted reasons preventing cabotage regime realising substantial growth domestic operations. Relevant reasons included : () ports South Africa operate kinds cargo ( mix cargo) levels productivity (ii) centres producing raw materials disconnected processing industrial centres. Overcoming challenges require engaging wider reforms aimed developing sustainable cargo volumes cabotage ( investments port improvements, logistics systems multimodal connections) addressing matters affecting domestic ship‐owning operations financing mechanisms shortage skilled labour. concerns perspective developed countries, cases EU Zealand provide interesting insights impact relaxing maritime cabotage regimes regard market developments, including market shares local companies, prices, frequency quality services. regimes relaxed 90s. EU level, Council Regulation (EEC) 3577/92, adopted 7 December 1992, established principle freedom provide services maritime transport Member States (maritime cabotage). means EU reciprocally recognized cabotage rights EU members, enabling EU ship owners freedom operate ports Member State. policy objective pursued related market integration, .. creating regional market provision maritime cabotage services. EU implemented regulation gradually. categories cabotage opened 1999, remaining restrictions lifted 200213. important note regulation foresees differentiated treatment vessels registered first14 registers15. unrestricted 13 Greek restrictions affecting passenger cabotage traffic. 14 registers Member States' registers RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 20 access cabotage market member states, entailed, cases, limited lack access. 2014 report European Commission examined developments 2001 2010, European cabotage market, encompasses EU EFTA members. points summarize main findings report extent relate freight cabotage. Abolishing maritime cabotage market access barriers led significant increase number ship‐owners interested providing cabotage services. report noted linked inherent features cabotage market, consists limited cargo volumes, exceptions routes high commercial interest16. reflect ship‐owning companies ensuring presence cabotage markets Member States acquiring shares national ship‐owning companies physically deploying cabotage services. Introducing public service obligations service providers needed case attractive commercial routes ensure traffic , islands ( Greece, Spain France). introduction regulation issue enabled public authorities negotiate ship‐owners position relative strength give administrations element control level fares. study suggests contributed achieve transparency attribution public service contracts public service obligations. Statistical tools track maritime cabotage increasingly considered insufficient unreliable member states longer collected market‐related statistics liberalization. addition, private operators reluctant provide data citing business confidentiality reasons. Vessels flying ‐national flags cabotage goods increased. Finland, presence ‐Finnish European Economic Area (EEA) flags increased 25 cent 2001 36 cent 2005 47 cent 2010. Italy, presence ‐Italian EEA flagged vessels increased cargo transport mainland cabotage approximately 43 cent 2001 47 cent 2009. Germany, average total cargo transported ‐German EEA vessels: 2002 share represented 52 cent; 2010 risen 56 cent. Cargo volumes remained generally stable period ( crisis years), countries recording increased cargo volumes. Employment seafarers engaged maritime cabotage slightly decreased countries data (Finland, Portugal Spain). 15 registers comprise: () "offshore registers" belonging territories greater lesser autonomy relation Member State, (ii) "international registers", attached State created . registers relaxed rules manning (.. crews) 16 mainland France Corsica, number ship owners providing cabotage services increased Regulation entered force. RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 21 cases, resulted replacement small cabotage vessels number modern ships higher tonnage. Cabotage liberalisation positive impact terms modernisation national fleets pressure wider competition improving quality services offer. important market segment EU cabotage liquid bulk. Zealand interesting investigating impact maritime cabotage reforms. Zealand adopted maritime cabotage liberalization 1994, Maritime Transport Act. Maritime cabotage liberalization part broader set major economic reforms open economy international competition. policy objective pursued case intensifying competition ensure high quality competitive shipping services excellent reliability acceptable service frequency, support export competitiveness agricultural, horticultural, forestry products. Liberalization allowed international vessels visiting Zealand deliver imports pick exports. precisely, regulation envisaged coastal cargoes carried foreign ship cases Table 5. Table 5: Eligibility criteria foreign ships provide cabotage services Zealand, Marine Transport Act 1994 (1) Foreign ships demise charter17 Zealand based operator employs engages crew work board ship employment agreement contract services governed Zealand law (2) Foreign ships… … passing Zealand waters continuous journey foreign port foreign port; … stopping Zealand load unload international cargo; … carriage coastal cargo incidental relation carriage international cargo Source: Thompson al. (2015) Cavana (2004) Liu (2009) analysed impact change cabotage regulation Zealand : impact liberalization greater container shipping sector carriage domestic containers North South Islands. Due extra competition improved carrier utilization capacity international ship operators, freight rates dropped quickly period immediately liberalization, stabilized extent time. Cavana (2004) estimated fall coastal freight rates 20‐25 cent 1994 2000. instances 17 Ship leasing arrangement entire vessel expenses pass ship owner lessee (chartrer). lessee appoint master crew, called bareboat charter. RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 22 freight rates containers freight travelling North South Island dropped 50 cent. drop freight rates homogenous country. Liu (2009) reported South‐bound freight rates fell NZ$ 1'200‐1'500 TEU prior liberalization NZ$ 950‐1'000 TEU similar change appeared occurred North‐ bound freight rates, dry cargoes. Reductions refrigerated cargoes large. freight rates North‐bound cargo generally decreased smaller amounts, international shipping lines travel coast southerly direction departing Zealand. liberalization, international carriers secured share approximately 10‐15 cent domestic coastal container market. appears domestic carriers retain vast majority market , order , substantially reduce freight rates. worth noting Cavana instances domestic shipping operators increases coastal shipping business activities. number commercial vessels permanently deployed coastal routes Zealand remained largely unchanged 6 years act force. sector decline number vessels deployed liquid bulk sector, decline unrelated competition foreign operators. volume general ( containerized) cargoes shipped Zealand coasts increased 5 cent .. 1995 2004. Cavana reported case volumes shipped increased 100 cent major domestic coastal ship operator. Liberalization led intensified competition domestic cargoes coastal shipping, rail road significant increase frequency services major ports South North islands Zealand. 2000, Government Zealand undertook review implementation, evaluate ‐introduce maritime cabotage restrictions. review prompted main reasons: () loss revenue domestic shipping due profit margins cut owing competition international operators (ii) limited growth domestic industry participation18. review highlighted Zealand ship owners, workers, maritime industry associations supported ‐introducing maritime cabotage restrictions, arguing provide jobs locals domestic industry sustainable long term. , stakeholders, including international ship operators, ports, freight distribution services, manufacturers, primary goods producers ‐introduction maritime cabotage restrictions, claiming lead higher domestic international freight rates, loss jobs, businesses, exports, higher fuel usage, negative environmental effects, decline regional economic activity. 18 2000, 21 vessels operated 9 companies coastal shipping services compared 19 vessels operated 10 companies 1994 RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 23 review decided ‐introduction maritime cabotage restrictions option enhancing domestic economy estimated lead negative net returns economy. , recognizing strong support subsidies countries respective shipping industries, committee recommended levelling playing field international domestic sectors industry ensure fair competition. Concrete measures proposed achieve objective boost Zealand shipping industry participation. included introduction tonnage tax register vessels. examining impact cabotage regimes cabotage operations related market developments, interesting explore impact rules international maritime connectivity, important determinant trade costs. section issue. 4. Cabotage restrictions liner shipping connectivity country’ ability connect global regional transport networks key determinant integration global supply chains shipping costs, critical ensure price competitiveness success maintaining export market shares. Maritime transport connectivity19 nature maritime connections, including aspects number regular maritime services, frequency reliability. Improved liner shipping connectivity reduce trade costs direct, positive bearing trade volumes. consideration, current section analyses: () impact restrictions maritime cabotage transport costs liner shipping connectivity; (ii) emerging trends reshaping liner shipping market; (iii) relaxing cabotage regimes contribute improved connectivity current context (iv) policy spheres reforms required improved connectivity. 4.1. Zooming impact maritime cabotage restrictions transport costs liner shipping connectivity effectively excluding foreigners entering market treating foreign maritime service providers favourably domestic , maritime cabotage restrictions restrain competition. Lack competition result : 1. Increased costs force carriers resort tranship cargoes countries domestic feeder services expensive, implying added operational costs shippers , negatively affecting trade. 19 shipping market segments, including liner shipping bulk shipping. Liner shipping companies provide regular services ports time tables prices advertised advance carry cargo containers. contrast, bulk shipping companies operate spot markets fixed routes schedules. ships contracted carry cargo () port () port. cargo consists large quantity single commodity. cabotage operations important transporting domestic regional trade goods crude oil, petrochemicals, gasoline, ore, coal, fertilizer grains chemicals oil, research focuses liner shipping connectivity due data availability. RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 24 2. Limited quality logistic services weak links global trade lanes. , turn, negative impact efficiency supply chains connectivity. Box 2 estimates costs involved restrictive cabotage laws. Box 2: Jones Act complicates logistics adds costs United States Merchant Marine Act 1920 (Jones Act) restrictive cabotage laws. requires shipping goods transported US ports carried ships US flag. ships constructed United States, owned US citizens, crewed US citizens US permanent residents. , steel foreign repair work Jones Act vessel 10 percent ship’ total weight. Political advocacy Jones Act unwavering, led primarily shipyards industries, maritime labour unions congressional delegations Hawaii Alaska. Critics law include domestic foreign shippers ( consumers) international logistic companies. empirical studies attempted estimate economic effects Jones Act, comprehensive report published US International Trade Commission (2002), estimated annual economic gain repealing act residents Puerto Rico, Alaska Hawaii USD 5 billion USD 15 billion ( current‐ dollars). study, Justin Lewis coastal water transport United States 60 percent cheaper, consumers services stand gain $500 million annually, relaxing eliminating Jones Act. Waivers temporary basis, case emergencies hurricanes, raised criticism negative impact Jones Act ensuring continuous supply goods reasonable cost. alternative international shipping services relay United States typically move goods land. Estimates suggest 500’000 qualifying containers moved highway rail 2012. containers allowed stay water tranship international liner services, economic benefit supply chain participants ‐shippers, carriers consumers‐ exceed USD 200 million. Sources: Bain & Company World Bank (2013) Kashian al. (2017) RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 25 understand impact liner shipping connectivity, worth revisiting model maritime shipping companies organize routes. "hub‐‐spoke system", network connections arranged chariot wheel, traffic moves spokes connected hub ( centre). hub, smaller feeder vessels bring cargo loaded larger ships transportation final destinations. Similarly, containers arriving large vessels transhipped smaller vessels shipping destination ports. , cargo transhipped “relayed” mainline services similar‐sized vessels, hub (Frost al. 2008). means countries connected manner: ‐connected countries strongly connected ‐connected countries "hubs" connected countries "spokes". Restrictions international operators transport domestic trade provide feedering services leads situations ship call ports country, allowed transporting cargo ports. restricts potential supply transport services, represents missed opportunity maritime cabotage transport. discourage modal shift land sea transport. Cabotage restrictions impact decisions carriers optimize shipping networks, regard ensuring ( serving local routes) adequate capacity feed transhipment ports (.. generating scale volume) feedering services relay cargo. Box 3 illustrates problem. Box 3. Impact cabotage regimes connectivity: assessment EU perspective Panteia (2015) examined impact maritime cabotage regimes regard international competitiveness EU marine transport sector, part study commissioned European Commission review EU maritime transport strategy. study involved wide‐ ranging consultations Member States, business representatives (shipping companies) consumers (shippers) discuss, topics, key challenges affecting shipping companies' margins. respect, cabotage restrictions featured prominently. inability foreign‐flagged vessels moving domestic cargo ports country resulted cargo carried efficient port final destination increased costs. Cabotage restrictions required shipping companies hire national services competitive rates, , turn, affected feedering relay operations. Feedering interest industry representatives, perceived increased reliance feeder transport part transport chain. interested operations case growing markets ( China, India, US Russia) high volume goods transported origin final destination countries, necessitating high level domestic feedering. Relay operations, important component making maritime traffic cost efficient optimal routing important shipping companies. issue, EU Chamber Commerce China highlighted cabotage restrictions country represented barrier RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 26 EU shipping companies. flexibility optimise route networks forced tranship cargoes originating China overseas ports ( South Korea Singapore), rely domestic‐flagged vessel transport cargo port China. options resulted additional costs loss efficiency. EU Chamber Commerce, cheaper EU‐operators tranship cargo China domestic feeder services expensive. Shippers expressed concerns feedering relay terms added operational costs ‐‐ supply chain. costs arose outsourcing service domestic companies foreign companies unable provide services . respondents perceived factors producing negative impacts terms effectiveness, efficiency reliability service. Source: Panteia al. 2015 4.2. Key issues current context argued latest edition UNCTAD Review Maritime Transport, published October 2017, shipping landscape evolving number emerging trends reshaping liner shipping market. emerging trends result large extent challenges facing liner shipping companies. understanding developments important ways relaxation maritime cabotage restrictions improve countries’ liner connectivity levels. respect, key relevant trends worth noting include, , : Increased concentration, resulting market consolidation ( mergers acquisitions). implies reduced number players controlling larger market shares; oversupplied market, resulting larger ships demand growth. led persistent freight rates probability high utilization rates (due trade imbalances attractive routes) Liner shipping market alliances reshuffling mega alliances, resulting carriers consolidating vessel calls port pairs probable choices routes. Efforts liner shipping companies cope challenges seek increase efficiency transport operations reduce costs supply chain. achieve ‐organizing shipping networks revising allocation assets commercial strategies. ship deployment patterns strategies. replaced mega‐vessels, vessels redundant "cascaded" secondary trade routes , turn, affect transhipment direct call equilibrium. Reducing number frequency (direct) services shipping strategies, carriers limiting number calls megaships, resulting ship calls major ports. context, transhipment essential shipping companies optimize utilization ultra‐large container ships helps generate required cargo volumes. Figure 1 Figure 2 show evolution transhipment world container traffic 1980 2017. RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 27 Figure 1: World Container Traffic, port handling (empty full containers) transhipment Source: UNCTAD elaboration, based Drewry Maritime Research data Figure 2: World container traffic, percentage share transhipment port handling total Source: UNCTAD elaboration, based Drewry Maritime Research data trends implications ports, faced challenges related mitigating negative impact growing cost pressures, accommodating growing vessel size. impact consequent requirement upgrade equipment infrastructure service larger ships, investment , weak demand trade imbalances, uncertain returns ports. impact relates potential port congestion dwell time, increased number containers absorbs port capacity handling calls takes time load unload. 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 ill io EU Full Empty Transhipment 10 14 18 22 26 27 26 26 26 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2017 RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 28 trend increased competition ports, transhipment ports, capture higher traffic volumes lock customers mega‐alliances. fact, larger powerful alliances aiming raising network efficiency increase pressure ports enhance productivity expecting , issues, reduce cabotage restrictions (UNCTAD, 2017) pre‐requisite ensure entry service operator route. changing configuration maritime shipping networks generates opportunities challenges developing countries. Opportunities relate development transhipment centres, routes ports, modernization terminals accommodate arrival, loading transit bigger vessels. Ports infrastructure capabilities connect logistical nodes opportunities reap trade benefits. , expansion Panama Canal 2016 represented opportunities inter‐ regional routes Caribbean Latin American ports attract transhipment business larger ships employed routes passing Colombia, Cuba, Jamaica countries. difference size largest smallest container ships widens, economic incentive trans‐ship cargo, view ensuring optimal size vessel leg trade route. , opportunities guaranteed concretize. 2015 2016, contractions port‐handling volumes reported Africa (‐0.7 cent), developing America (‐1.2 cent) Western Asia (‐0.7 cent) (UNCTAD 2017). context entails challenges, related deviations traditional routes negative impact connectivity countries. mentioned previous section, increased vessel size implies significant costs infrastructure upgrading ports, investment ports developing countries capable assume. lead frequency maritime services ( losing direct connections) negatively impacting connectivity, increasing transport costs reducing trade opportunities, explained Box 4. Box 4: impact direct maritime connections costs transport export performance developing countries 20 cent coastal country pairs direct maritime connection country origin destination transhipment. Developed countries average number direct maritime connections compared developing countries. Lacking direct maritime connection trade partner important terms export performance. export values – 40 cent additional transhipment –. Conversely, country pairs reduce trade costs 9 cent add direct maritime connection. addition, worth noting developing countries face higher transport costs developed countries. 2016, UNCTAD estimated countries spent average 15 cent imports international transport insurance. Smaller structurally vulnerable economies pay significantly , reaching average 22 cent SIDS, 19 cent LLDCs 21 cent Developed Countries (LDCs). RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 29 efficiency ports, inadequate infrastructure, limited economies scale, competitive transport markets persistent transport cost burden developing countries. Source: UNCTAD (2017) Review Maritime Transport 4.3. contribution relaxing cabotage regimes improved connectivity current context section 3.2, cabotage restrictions source inefficiencies carriers raise costs limit quality services . contrast, improving linkages domestic freight transport international freight transport contribute, feeder operations generate cargo volumes reducing trade costs. Annex 1 illustrate cases reality. column table reflects extent () maximum TEU ship capacity deployed intra‐country services equal (ii) maximum TEU ship capacity total vessel deployment. case figure 100 cent ( Brazil, Chile, China, Gabon, Ghana, India, Mexico, Turkey South Africa), intra‐country connections form part international service. context, operation foreign service providers cabotage domestic markets bring benefits regard types quantities cargo ( containerized cargo). instance, larger advanced foreign‐flagged vessels reduce costs advantage economies scale cargo optimization. Allowing shipment domestic cargo domestic leg international vessel spare capacity (due imbalanced trade) cheaper shipping smaller ships lack scale transferring international ship. Similarly, export import cargo benefit economies scale avoiding unnecessary cargo transfers domestic vessel international vessel. perspective connectivity, means relaxation cabotage regimes contribute facilitate connections feeder ports, turn increased access transhipment hubs. effect relaxing cabotage regulations enhancing transhipment potential domestic ports improving connectivity illustrated case Uruguay (Figure 3) Sri Lanka (Figure 4). Uruguay case, Argentina, Brazil Uruguay served lines. smaller economy, Uruguay accommodating services, imports exports, transit cargo Paraguay transhipment services Argentina Brazil, cabotage restrictions limit transhipment potential national ports. RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 30 Figure 3: Liner Shipping Connectivity Index, 2004–2017 (Argentina, Brazil Uruguay) Source: UNCTADStat (http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspxReportId=92) case Sri Lanka interesting outgrown larger neighbours. Colombo accommodates large container ships deployed services Asia Europe, services Africa South America. Feedering Colombo ports India ships flag, services affected Indian cabotage restrictions. Figure 4: Liner Shipping Connectivity Index, 2004–2017 (Sri Lanka, India Pakistan) Source: UNCTADStat (http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspxReportId=92) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Argentina Brazil Uruguay 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Sri Lanka India Pakistan RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 31 years, countries relaxed cabotage regimes part broader strategies increase competitiveness, improve connectivity adapt context emerging trends. India, cabotage regime introduced context broader reforms related improving logistics trade competitiveness, reducing costs. Government relaxed cabotage restrictions specialized vessels, short supply. case, enabling transhipment containers foreign flagged vessels encourage modal shift road rail coastal shipping. Malaysia removed cabotage policy Sabah Sarawak 1 June 2017. belief maritime cabotage policy restricted transport options, resulted monopolized shipping industry, increased cost consumer goods motivated change. , goods exported Eastern Malaysia left transit prolonged periods vessels travelling Eastern Malaysia unable carry full load. , manufacturers Eastern Malaysia lost ability compete successfully market. time goods arrive port discharge, prices goods longer competitive. delay issue vessel frequency resulted increased port charges risk cargo theft. Additionally, goods transported peninsular Malaysia Eastern Malaysia passed long supply chain discharged, resulting increased freight costs. lifting cabotage laws expected Eastern Malaysian ports accessible, increasing trading activities attracting container traffic routes Straits Malacca. Increased seaborne trade resulting Chinese economic boom prompted countries Asia compete transhipment. 2013, China gradually relaxed maritime cabotage restrictions Shanghai free trade area bid promote area boost transhipment volumes Shanghai. result, foreign registered vessels carry containers Shanghai Chinese ports – vessels Chinese owners. Previously formal position Chinese‐owned ‐flagged vessels, preventing , , foreign flagged ships China Ocean Shipping (Group) Company China Shipping Container Lines. change raised concerns Hong Kong (China), owing decreasing throughput connectivity. 4.4. Required reforms areas improved connectivity Relaxing restrictions applying domestic shipping services ‐cabotage– linked international shipping services, potentially improve country’ international connectivity eliminating unnecessary inefficiencies. , improving connectivity function complementary policy measures span broad range areas, including infrastructure hinterland development. relation physical infrastructure, investing port facilities upgrades accommodate larger vessels, water‐depth ship‐‐shore container handling cranes enable secondary feeder locations berth bigger, mainline ships. Regional coordination planning investment decisions; , sense ports route plan port investments jointly, accommodate vessels expected serve route future. RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 32 Public–private partnerships pooling financial resources, account common user ports container terminals , decades, concessioned involved private sector form. Improving efficiency seaport operations important part strategy improve connectivity. context, adopting modern network technologies, cargo vessel‐tracking methods digital developments contribute modernize port operations. Transport trade facilitation reforms, () facilitating transit line international standards recommendations, including United Nations, WCO WTO (ii) improving procedures efficient movement goods borders, line provisions (WTO) Trade Facilitation Agreement, avoid delays uncertainties contribute significantly reducing transaction costs. Encouraging port competition, including neighbouring countries' ports, contribute improved connectivity. Competitive pressures encourage port operators maximize efficiency pass efficiency gains clients, shippers shipping lines. Inter‐port competition limited domestic seaports, neighbouring countries’ ports . Developing connections ports inland transport modes (hinterland connections) effective instrument enhance inter‐port competition, connections implications shipping volumes costs, cargo loading capacity, sailing / loading schedules, storage warehousing. , facilitating integration rail, road, fluvial transport networks seaports increase intermodal connections, expanding market port’ services. competitive trade logistics market, shippers choose terminals, trucking shipping companies improve maritime connectivity. RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 33 Conclusions Maritime cabotage services excluded trade liberalization commitments cabotage restrictions remain place applied regimes countries. restrictions form conditions requirements applying foreign vessels. include requirements pertaining : () ownership flagging (related, , foreign equity limits, nationality/residence requirements crews managers) (ii) ship registration. restrictive nature maritime cabotage regimes indicative sensitive nature sector. motivated security concerns introduced, justifications maritime cabotage today intended building supply‐side capacity shipping derive revenues employment benefits. present research suggests countries succeeded building supply‐ side capacity implementing policies supplement cabotage regimes. , countries faced challenges undermine ability leverage removal maritime cabotage restrictions order build supply‐side capacity. cases, cabotage regimes strictly applied developing countries leading emergence waivers common practice. experience developed countries, relaxed respective maritime cabotage regimes 1990s, suggests ( cases) opening domestic shipping industry international competition entailed challenges terms domestic trade‐offs constituencies, lead improved efficiency reduced freight rates. nexus liner shipping connectivity maritime cabotage restrictions affecting liner trades overemphasized. Maritime cabotage restrictions undermine liner shipping connectivity reducing competition, turn, increases costs reduces efficient transport operations. , relaxing maritime cabotage restrictions improve liner shipping connectivity, reduce trade costs, stimulate trade flows economies scale , generate revenues, employment profits. growing deployment ‐larger ships, cascading vessels main trade routes secondary routes growing concentration liner shipping, observers argue maritime/liner shipping connectivity developing countries undermined. Today, transhipment feedering remain key elements liner shipping operations perspective collecting cargo spoke ports transferring hub ports vital part filling large ships. context, relaxing cabotage restrictions improve maritime transport connectivity helping interconnect national, regional intercontinental liner shipping services. years, developing countries relaxed cabotage regimes part strategies increase competitiveness, increase connectivity adapt context emerging trends. important highlight , relaxing cabotage regulation improve country' level maritime/liner shipping connectivity, objective function policy measures span broad range areas including infrastructure hinterland development. complementary measures extend relaxation maritime cabotage restrictions include investing port RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 34 facilities upgrades; improving efficiency seaport operations; encouraging port competition, including neighbouring countries' ports developing connections ports inland transport modes. Based review, research established linkages maritime cabotage liner shipping connectivity view current liner shipping market landscape characterized greater market consolidation, concentration, alliance reshuffle, mega alliances, mega ships, countries review maritime cabotage regime assess, case case basis, merit partially fully relaxing existing maritime cabotage restrictions. addition enhancing liner shipping connectivity, allowing foreign service providers/sophisticated maritime transport logistics service providers operate domestic market enable transfer ‐, modern practice management methods expertise. Safeguard measures ensure progressive tailored approaches relaxing maritime cabotage restrictions favoured favouring trial/test temporary relaxation pilot cases feasibility studies. assessment, including quantitative assessment impacts measures carried ensure evidence based policy decisions field. RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 35 Annex: Container ship deployment domestic services, 2017 Total vessel deployment Domestic vessel deployment ep lo yed al cap acity (TEU ) er sh ip sch ed led services er erato rs er services axim sh ip cap acity (TEU ) ep lo yed al cap acity (TEU ) ercen tage tal er sh ip sch ed led services ercen tage tal er erato rs ercen tage tal tal er services ercen tage tal axim sh ip cap acity (TEU ) ercen tage tal 1 Algeria 1'290'902 66 33 33 1'315 257'678 20 25 38 11 33 11 33 1'118 85 2 Angola 1'275'780 78 23 15 6'950 487'659 38 41 53 11 48 9 60 3'663 53 3 Argentina 4'493'594 127 44 25 9'635 543'251 12 18 14 9 20 8 32 3'451 36 4 Australia 5'717'420 206 91 49 6'380 4'406'863 77 157 76 63 69 32 65 6'380 100 5 Bahamas 3'696'903 98 24 17 9'040 108'888 3 2 2 2 8 2 12 1'726 19 6 Bangladesh 2'205'834 56 30 26 2'457 107'848 5 3 5 3 10 3 12 1'700 69 7 Brazil 6'581'330 175 55 31 9'635 6'359'090 97 168 96 49 89 25 81 9'635 100 8 British Virgin Islands 127'998 8 3 3 1'033 127'998 100 8 100 3 100 3 100 1'033 100 9 Bulgaria 452'270 14 8 7 1'623 174'902 39 6 43 3 38 3 43 1'126 69 10 Canada 9'351'366 259 113 45 11'293 1'320'349 14 41 16 15 13 9 20 8'500 75 11 Chile 4'187'451 129 40 21 11'629 3'629'957 87 113 88 32 80 18 86 11'629 100 12 China 85'347'68 1 1'996 907 463 18'506 76'210'45 2 89 1'738 87 757 83 348 75 18'506 100 13 Colombia 8'617'348 298 89 52 11'629 2'434'631 28 84 28 28 31 20 38 9'863 85 14 Comoros 78'251 6 4 4 1'705 78'251 100 6 100 4 100 4 100 1'705 100 15 Congo, Democratic Republic 1'875'712 102 31 21 6'950 4'260 0 1 1 1 3 1 5 710 10 16 Cook Islands 17'301 3 2 2 623 16'185 94 2 67 1 50 1 50 623 100 17 ôte 'Ivoire 2'510'211 120 28 19 4'596 255'138 10 14 12 2 7 2 11 3'107 68 18 Croatia 1'513'976 45 15 10 11'577 86'060 6 2 4 2 13 2 20 957 8 19 Cuba 589'938 21 8 7 2'551 113'280 19 5 24 2 25 2 29 1'700 67 20 Denmark 1'795'355 44 23 20 18'341 193'648 11 4 9 4 17 4 20 1'120 6 21 Dominican Republic 3'887'786 137 47 33 9'863 509'447 13 17 12 8 17 7 21 3'398 34 22 Ecuador 2'601'031 122 36 24 9'227 14'383 1 5 4 1 3 1 4 553 6 23 Egypt 12'110'79 293 107 71 14'167 2'968'621 25 65 22 32 30 21 30 6'571 46 RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 36 Total vessel deployment Domestic vessel deployment ep lo yed al cap acity (TEU ) er sh ip sch ed led services er erato rs er services axim sh ip cap acity (TEU ) ep lo yed al cap acity (TEU ) ercen tage tal er sh ip sch ed led services ercen tage tal er erato rs ercen tage tal tal er services ercen tage tal axim sh ip cap acity (TEU ) ercen tage tal 3 24 Equatorial Guinea 260'626 33 8 7 3'149 191'633 74 10 30 4 50 3 43 3'149 100 25 Fiji 381'355 32 20 15 2'631 208'110 55 19 59 12 60 9 60 1'617 61 26 Finland 1'966'738 76 42 39 2'365 708'391 36 26 34 17 40 14 36 2'365 100 27 France 18'823'47 3 466 176 87 17'387 2'746'237 15 86 18 22 13 14 16 16'277 94 28 Gabon 463'771 40 13 11 3'149 180'469 39 12 30 3 23 2 18 3'149 100 29 Georgia 368'050 10 6 6 1'623 57'600 16 1 10 1 17 1 17 1'600 99 30 Germany 26'427'47 2 621 253 143 18'350 5'213'249 20 125 20 39 15 35 24 18'341 100 31 Ghana 1'866'259 111 28 18 4'596 225'299 12 12 11 5 18 2 11 2'533 55 32 Greece 8'908'345 189 86 49 14'000 945'967 11 26 14 14 16 12 24 4'387 31 33 Haiti 676'047 24 10 10 2'501 171'214 25 10 42 4 40 4 40 1'740 70 34 Honduras 1'680'810 58 24 22 2'559 47'320 3 1 2 1 4 1 5 910 36 35 Iceland 285'406 14 8 8 1'457 223'730 78 10 71 6 75 6 75 1'457 100 36 India 15'291'67 5 371 164 90 11'569 12'158'25 0 80 290 78 117 71 62 69 11'569 100 37 Indonesia 8'700'671 290 146 117 8'704 4'412'786 51 184 63 85 58 77 66 4'400 51 38 Iran 3'567'190 80 36 32 12'183 918'242 26 20 25 15 42 12 38 6'500 53 39 Iraq 1'597'425 31 13 13 8'410 138'528 9 1 3 1 8 1 8 2'664 32 40 Ireland 1'152'008 34 19 19 2'551 152'100 13 5 15 4 21 4 21 970 38 41 Israel 5'071'072 132 44 30 11'890 2'626'157 52 79 60 27 61 21 70 8'325 70 42 Italy 16'614'78 7 454 162 103 14'167 12'017'71 0 72 318 70 114 70 72 70 14'167 100 43 Jamaica 2'674'987 100 37 27 8'858 326'595 12 10 10 5 14 5 19 1'869 21 44 Japan 18'584'56 9 594 291 204 12'939 13'960'93 2 75 462 78 252 87 181 89 9'041 70 45 Kuwait 684'788 11 6 6 3'800 271'700 40 4 36 3 50 3 50 2'759 73 46 Libya 619'384 32 22 21 1'726 257'886 42 13 41 8 36 8 38 1'145 66 47 Madagascar 570'045 27 10 9 2'514 85'938 15 6 22 4 40 4 44 1'275 51 RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 37 Total vessel deployment Domestic vessel deployment ep lo yed al cap acity (TEU ) er sh ip sch ed led services er erato rs er services axim sh ip cap acity (TEU ) ep lo yed al cap acity (TEU ) ercen tage tal er sh ip sch ed led services ercen tage tal er erato rs ercen tage tal tal er services ercen tage tal axim sh ip cap acity (TEU ) ercen tage tal 48 Malaysia 36'663'69 7 906 365 196 18'506 5'739'593 16 156 17 79 22 53 27 13'908 75 49 Marshall Islands 71'354 10 5 4 1'617 9'360 13 3 30 2 40 1 25 624 39 50 Mauritania 222'487 15 7 6 1'774 123'817 56 8 53 4 57 4 67 1'162 66 51 Mauritius 2'339'459 75 16 13 10'409 13'806 1 2 3 1 6 1 8 266 3 52 Mexico 8'535'960 259 85 47 11'629 6'287'321 74 172 66 56 66 27 57 11'629 100 53 Micronesia 9'360 3 2 1 624 9'360 100 3 100 2 100 1 100 624 100 54 Morocco 12'053'64 0 312 105 68 18'350 734'319 6 38 12 15 14 14 21 2'069 11 55 Mozambique 469'666 31 10 9 2'920 368'606 78 24 77 6 60 5 56 2'455 84 56 Namibia 764'487 44 10 8 4'596 28'461 4 3 7 1 10 1 13 1'095 24 57 Netherlands 26'186'30 0 604 242 142 18'506 156'000 1 7 1 5 2 5 4 1'008 5 58 Caledonia 449'054 43 18 14 2'857 21'138 5 2 5 1 6 1 7 813 28 59 Zealand 3'441'670 136 51 32 9'890 2'229'011 65 98 72 42 82 24 75 4'614 47 60 Norway 829'728 26 24 23 1'300 698'820 84 21 81 20 83 19 83 1'300 100 61 Pakistan 6'446'292 145 50 25 8'966 882'068 14 16 11 4 8 3 12 8'558 95 62 Panama 11'943'49 6 357 114 62 12'041 2'829'557 24 89 25 24 21 14 23 9'040 75 63 Papua Guinea 524'812 47 26 25 2'300 455'063 87 42 89 24 92 23 92 2'190 95 64 Peru 4'915'440 165 49 26 11'629 188'193 4 9 5 5 10 4 15 1'740 15 65 Philippines 6'056'224 195 92 76 4'818 2'468'508 41 98 50 46 50 43 57 3'477 72 66 Poland 3'032'933 69 31 24 18'348 64'231 2 10 14 2 6 2 8 865 5 67 Portugal 6'704'416 204 63 53 12'939 1'257'037 19 62 30 28 44 26 49 5'702 44 68 Republic Korea 40'924'76 8 1'017 465 245 18'506 10'725'84 5 26 286 28 160 34 99 40 18'348 99 69 Russian Federation 5'513'797 238 97 85 7'392 783'696 14 29 12 22 23 16 19 3'473 47 70 Saint Kitts Nevis 132'548 8 3 3 1'116 53'716 41 4 50 1 33 1 33 1'033 93 RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 38 Total vessel deployment Domestic vessel deployment ep lo yed al cap acity (TEU ) er sh ip sch ed led services er erato rs er services axim sh ip cap acity (TEU ) ep lo yed al cap acity (TEU ) ercen tage tal er sh ip sch ed led services ercen tage tal er erato rs ercen tage tal tal er services ercen tage tal axim sh ip cap acity (TEU ) ercen tage tal 71 Saint Lucia 248'785 13 5 5 1'289 65'676 26 6 46 2 40 2 40 973 75 72 Saudi Arabia 18'444'50 8 354 137 59 14'159 3'248'576 18 60 17 29 21 13 22 11'421 81 73 Somalia 454'686 17 8 8 2'428 20'400 4 1 6 1 13 1 13 1'200 49 74 South Africa 5'247'559 192 57 32 10'409 3'230'349 62 104 54 31 54 17 53 10'409 100 75 Spain 21'685'89 0 605 213 151 18'506 10'016'15 8 46 269 44 107 50 73 48 14'167 77 76 Sweden 3'651'241 73 35 33 18'341 560'179 15 17 23 11 31 11 33 1'570 9 77 Syria 387'565 10 6 6 2'253 143'572 37 4 40 2 33 2 33 1'638 73 78 Taiwan 25'504'07 3 601 291 146 14'000 6'676'775 26 180 30 95 33 68 47 13'840 99 79 Tanzania 1'365'908 62 18 14 3'245 19'656 1 1 2 1 6 1 7 756 23 80 Thailand 10'615'26 3 338 172 90 8'750 2'821'477 27 112 33 66 38 36 40 1'867 21 81 Trinidad Tobago 799'266 44 17 16 1'997 104'295 13 7 16 2 12 2 13 1'307 65 82 Tunisia 587'519 27 19 19 1'220 140'229 24 7 26 5 26 5 26 1'157 95 83 Turkey 10'147'06 8 285 117 89 13'336 7'776'117 77 205 72 84 72 59 66 13'336 100 84 Ukraine 1'875'429 60 17 12 9'492 731'289 39 15 25 5 29 4 33 6'571 69 85 United Arab Emirates 20'468'66 9 393 158 94 17'387 6'036'511 29 118 30 52 33 31 33 12'183 70 86 United Kingdom 24'946'06 3 594 235 139 18'506 3'544'693 14 75 13 38 16 30 22 18'350 99 87 United States 36'154'50 4 990 437 200 13'950 26'758'51 8 74 755 76 315 72 124 62 13'950 100 88 Uruguay 3'745'938 99 33 16 9'635 31'200 1 1 1 1 3 1 6 600 6 89 US Virgin Islands 183'222 8 4 4 1'122 58'344 32 2 25 1 25 1 25 1'122 100 90 Vanuatu 137'867 16 9 6 2'080 34'398 25 3 19 2 22 2 33 813 39 91 Venezuela 555'826 30 19 16 2'139 261'764 47 18 60 11 58 10 63 1'769 83 92 Viet Nam 15'616'63 487 230 128 13'504 1'804'686 12 61 13 28 12 25 20 2'550 19 RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 39 Total vessel deployment Domestic vessel deployment ep lo yed al cap acity (TEU ) er sh ip sch ed led services er erato rs er services axim sh ip cap acity (TEU ) ep lo yed al cap acity (TEU ) ercen tage tal er sh ip sch ed led services ercen tage tal er erato rs ercen tage tal tal er services ercen tage tal axim sh ip cap acity (TEU ) ercen tage tal 2 93 Yemen 457'704 7 6 6 3'800 44'876 10 1 14 1 17 1 17 1'726 45 Source: UNCTAD Secretariat calculations, based data MDS Transmodal Notes: Services call ports country included country (.. China: service '2M ALLIANCE ‐ ALBATROSS/AE5' calls Chinese port; calculations service features . Deployed annual capacity = Average ship size service annual frequency Cells highlighted dark green share domestic vessel deployment total vessel deployment (measured indicators) high (meaning higher 79%) Cells highlighted light pink share domestic vessel deployment total vessel deployment (measured indicators) high (meaning higher 49% 80%) RETHINKING MARITIME CABOTAGE FOR IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY 40 References Akodu, Bisi (2015). Maritime Cabotage Nigeria – empower domestic ship‐owners. Olisa Agbakoba Legal (OAL) Rivas Amaya, Fiorella Rebeca; Monge de Leó, Claudia Marí Garcí ópez, Karen Elizabeth (2009). El desarrollo del Cabotaje como alternativa de transporte marítimo en la regió centroamericana Arvis, Jean Francois Shepherd, Ben (2013). Global connectivity Export Performance. World Bank Economic Premise. Bain & company World Bank (2013). Enabling Trade: valuing growth opportunities. 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